Alexander Hamilton

Biography

Alexander Hamilton did not begin life with any advantage. He was born in 1755 or 1757 on a small island in the British West Indies called Nevis. He was the illegitimate son of James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant whose descent from aristocrats had not brought him wealth or success, and an English-French Huguenot mother, Rachel Faucette Lavien, who was legally married to and had a son by, a fortune hunter named John Lavien. Rachel had separated from Lavien and ultimately fled to Nevis where she met James Hamilton and produced two sons with him, James Jr. and Alexander. In 1766, when Hamilton was 9-years old, his father moved the family to St. Croix in the Virgin Islands. Here he left Hamilton, his brother James, and their mother, and relocated to St. Kitts without them.

Rachel Lavien opened a small store on St. Croix and eked out a living for her sons. She died of yellow fever in 1768, leaving the two boys effectively orphaned. James Jr. and Alexander lived briefly with their cousin, but when the cousin committed suicide, the boys were separated. James Jr. was apprenticed to a local artisan and Alexander was taken in by a merchant. He became a clerk in Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm. Though still a teenager, Hamilton proved so competent that in 1771, the owner left him in charge of the business during his absence.

Hamilton’s brilliance was soon recognized by several of St. Croix’s leading citizens. The local Presbyterian minister was so impressed by a description Hamilton had penned of a devastating hurricane that hit the island that he shared it with other gentlemen. The account, written to his father, read like a sermon; it attacked human vanity in the face of nature’s powers. It prompted those who read it to raise money to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for an advanced education.

Hamilton arrived in New York City in 1772. Here, new patrons arranged for him to complete his spotty education at a New Jersey academy. Hamilton moved on to Kings College (later Columbia University.) But he never graduated as he became caught up in the revolutionary fervor brewing in New York City.

Hamilton became a popular pamphleteer for the revolutionary cause before he was even 20 years old. As soon as the war began, he accepted an appointment as the captain of an artillery troop—even though all he knew of artillery came from books. His bravery in the battles in New York impressed George Washington who invited Hamilton to serve as his secretary and aide-de-camp. A close, but sometimes stormy relationship developed between the two men. Eager to seek glory on the battlefield rather than sit in a tent writing letters for the General, Hamilton resigned his position. In 1781, he took a command position under Lafayette at Yorktown. In November of that year, he returned to civilian life and to his young wife Elizabeth, the daughter of the rich and politically powerful Philip Schuyler.

Hamilton decided to pursue a law career and quickly mastered what was needed to pass the bar. And then, he entered politics. Even before the American victory in the war, Hamilton had shared a vision of America’s potential: he believed the new country could quickly rival Britain economically and gain the respect of Europe if it pursued the right economic and political policies. What was lacking after the war, he believed, was a strong central government empowered to regulate and encourage key aspects of the nation’s growth.

Hamilton was elected to the Continental Congress in 1782. In 1786, he attended the Annapolis Convention where he called for another convention, one that would replace the Articles of Confederation with an “energetic” national government. In 1787, that convention met in Philadelphia and Hamilton was one of three New York delegates. Unfortunately, his two fellow delegates, John Lansing and Robert Yates, were chosen by New York Governor George Clinton to stand up for state sovereignty.

On June 18, as the convention debated whether to pursue the Virginia Plan and create a new frame of government or accept Dickinson’s plan to amend and strengthen the Articles, Hamilton rose to reject both options. He spoke for six hours, dismissing a simple revision of the Articles, but also insisting that the Virginia Plan did not go far enough as a blueprint for a new government. He proposed instead what he considered as the essentials of a sound government: a bicameral legislature with power to pass all laws; a House elected by the people for three years; a senate elected by electors from electoral districts to serve for life; and a solitary executive to be chosen by the people voting in electoral districts who would serve for good behavior. And as a fervent nationalist, he also proposed that state governors would be appointed by the Federal government.

In his notes on the convention, James Madison tried to parse out Hamilton’s motives for offering so radical a design for a new government. Hamilton, he wrote, had been silent during the debates, “partly from his delicate situation with respect to his own state.” Yet, Hamilton had clearly felt obliged to speak up and to declare himself opposed to both plans. But whatever his motivation, Hamilton had crossed a line; he would forever be tarred in some circles as a monarchist.

Frustrated and perhaps hurt by the negative response to his speech, Hamilton informally left the convention later that month and resumed his law practice. By July 10 Lansing and Yates had left for good, protesting the other delegates’ intention of replacing the Articles with a new, empowered national government. Their departure ensured that Hamilton would linger in his law office, since on his return to the convention he would be a rump delegation. Washington, disturbed by his absence, pleaded with Hamilton to return, writing “I am sorry you went away—I wish you were back.” But, Hamilton did not return until the convention was near its end. Despite his disappointment, he put his signature on the Constitution.

Hamilton then went on to campaign vigorously for ratification. Because Clinton’s Anti-Federalism was shared by many at the New York convention, Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison collaborated on writing essays in defense of the Constitution. Hamilton, who wrote quickly and cogently, contributed 51 essays; Madison, 29 and Jay, five. Known collectively as The Federalist Papers, these commentaries on the purpose and the appropriateness of every element of the Constitution persuaded many delegates in ratifying conventions across the states to vote in favor of adopting the Constitution. The Federalist Papers stand today as the best justification for the U.S. constitution ever composed.

In 1789, President Washington chose Hamilton to be his Secretary of the Treasury. With lightning speed, Hamilton produced the First Report on Public Credit, a virtual blueprint for putting the nation’s disorganized finances on a solid footing. In reports that followed, he proposed the establishment of a national bank, the funding of the national debt, assumption of the war debts of the states, and the encouragement of manufacturing by the federal government. Taken together these laid the groundwork for the country’s rapid rise as a powerful, respected, industrial nation. Perhaps his most important achievement, however, was his insistence that the Constitution be liberally and broadly interpreted, rather than narrowly read.

In 1795, Hamilton resigned from the cabinet and returned to his law practice. He never held public office again although he had a powerful impact on both New York and national politics. Often his choices in deploying that influence were controversial. For example, his concerted effort to prevent John Adams’ rise to the presidency, and later his efforts to undermine Adams’ decisions, helped Jefferson and his Republican party rise to power.

Hamilton’s personal life became a topic of public interest during the no-holds-barred political struggles between the Federalists and their Jeffersonian opposition. The revelation that Hamilton had an extramarital affair during his time in Philadelphia deeply embarrassed him and disturbed his marriage. In 1802, partly to heal the anguish suffered by his wife Elizabeth, he built an elegant country home called The Grange outside New York City. The cost of completing The Grange, plus failed land speculations, put a strain on his finances. But, it was the death of his oldest son in a duel that made Hamilton despondent. Ironically, in 1804, Hamilton too would be killed in a duel. He was 47-years old when Aaron Burr shot him over offenses to his honor Burr believed Hamilton to have made.

Thousands of people showed up for Hamilton’s funeral procession on July 14, 1804. As the New York Post reported, “On Saturday last the remains of ALEXANDER HAMILTON were committed to the grave with every possible testimony of respect and sorrow.” The procession was long and reflected Hamilton’s role as a soldier, a devoted church member, a lawyer, and an officer and founder of both a national bank and a local bank. It also included foreign dignitaries, the president, professors and students of Columbia College, artisans and members of working class organizations. As the procession moved slowly to Trinity Church, the streets were lined with mourners, many of them weeping.

Hamilton’s friend and fellow nationalist at the constitutional convention, Gouverneur Morris, gave the eulogy. After detailing Hamilton’s many accomplishments and services to the country, Morris addressed the mourners gathered in the church: “I charge you to protect his fame….that fame may be a rich treasure to you….Let it be the test by which to examine those who solicit your favour…view their conduct and on a doubtful occasion, ask, Would Hamilton have done this thing?”